The radical promises of these visions led many to anticipate dramatic economic and productivity growth from information technology, as well as the waves of privatization, deregulation and tax cuts that went along with them in most liberal democracies beginning roughly half a century ago. Yet these promises are far from bearing fruit and economic analysis increasingly suggests these directions for technology may play a key role in explaining that failure.
Figure 2-0-F. Improvement in technology represented by growth in "Total Factor Productivity". Source: Gordon, The Rise and Fall of American Growth[^TFP]
[^TFP]: Robert J. Gordon, op. cit.
Instead of the promised explosion of economic possibility, the last half-century has seen a dramatic deceleration of economic and especially productivity growth. Figure F shows the growth in the United States of “Total Factor Productivity (TFP)”, economists’ most inclusive measure of the improvement in technology, averaged by decades from the beginning of the 20th century to today. Rates during the mid-century “Golden Age” roughly doubled their levels both before and after during the period we dub the “Digital Stagnation”. The pattern is even more dramatic in other liberal democratic countries in Europe and in most of democratic Asia, with South Korea and Taiwan notable exceptions.
To make matters worse, this period of stagnation has also been one of dramatically rising inequality, especially in the United States. Figure G shows average income growth in the US by income percentile during the Golden Age and Digital Stagnation respectively. During the Golden Age, income growth was roughly constant across the distribution, but trailed off for top-income earners. During the Digital Stagnation, income growth was higher for higher earners and only exceeded the average level during the Golden Age for those in the top 1%, with even smaller groups earning the great majority of the overall much lower income gains.
Figure 2-0-G. Average income growth in the US by income percentile during the Golden Age and Digital Stagnation. Source: Saez and Zucman, "The Rise of Income and Wealth Inequality"[^inequality]
[^inequality]: Emmanuel Saez and Gabriel Zucman, "The Rise of Wealth and Inequality in America: Evidence from Distributional Macroeconomic Accounts," Journal of Economic Perspectives 34, no. 4 (2020): 3-26.
What has gone so wrong in the last half-century compared to the one before? Economists have studied a range of factors, from the rise of market power and the decline of unions to the progressively greater challenge of innovating when so much has already been invented. But increasing evidence focuses on two factors closely tied to the influence of technocracy and libertarianism respectively: the shift in the direction of technological progress towards automation and away from labor augmentation and the shift in the direction of policy away from proactively shaping industrial development and relations and towards an assumption that “free markets know best”.
On the first point, in a series of recent papers, Acemoglu, Pascual Restrepo, and collaborators have documented the shift in the direction of technical progress from the Golden Age to the Digital Stagnation. Figure H summarizes their results, plotting cumulative changes in productivity over time from labor automation (what they call “displacement”) and labor augmentation (what they call “reinstatement”)[^AcemogluRestrepoStudy]. During the Golden Age, reinstatement roughly balanced displacement, leaving the share of income going to workers essentially constant. During the Digital Stagnation, however, displacement has slightly accelerated while reinstatement has dramatically fallen, leading to slower overall productivity growth and a significant reduction in the share of income going to workers. Furthermore, their analysis shows that the inegalitarian effects of this imbalance have been exacerbated by the concentration of displacement among low-skilled workers.
Figure 2-0-H. Cumulative changes in productivity over time from Displacement (labor automation) and Reinstatement (labor augmentation) during the Golden Age and Digital Stagnation. Source: Acemoglu and Restrepo, "Automation and New Tasks: How Technology Displaces and Reinstates Labor"^AcemogluRestrepo
The role of “neoliberal” policies in contributing to the stagnation and inequality of this period is widely debated and we suspect most readers have formed their own views on the matter. One of us was also co-author of a book that contains a review of the evidence as of roughly a decade ago.[^PosnerWeylBook] We will thus not go into detail here and refer readers to instead to that or other related writing.[^PhilipponBook] However, clearly, the defining ideological and policy direction of this period was an embrace of capitalist market economics, often closely tied to claims that such an embrace was necessitated by the globalization of technology and the resulting impossibility of collective governance/action that is core to the Libertarian ideology. The, largely failed, last half-century of technology and policy has thus been characterized by the dominance of Technocracy in the sphere of technology and Libertarianism in the sphere of policy.
Of course, the last half century has hardly been devoid of technological breakthroughs that have genuinely brought about positive, if uneven and sometimes fraught, transformations. Personal computers empowered unprecedented human creativity in the 1980s; the internet allowed communication and connection across previously unimaginable distances in the 1990s; smartphones integrated these two revolutions and made them ubiquitous in the 2000s. Yet, it is striking that none of these most canonical innovations of our time fit neatly into the Technocratic or Libertarian stories. They were clearly all technologies that augmented human creativity, often called “intelligence augmentation” or IA, rather than AI.[^IA] Yet neither were they envisioned primarily as tools to escape existing social institutions; they facilitated rich communication and connection rather than market transactions, private property, and secrecy. As we will see, these technologies emerged from a very different tradition than either of these two. Thus, even the few major technological leaps in this period were largely independent of or in contrast to these visions.
[^IA]: John Markoff, Machines of Loving Grace: The Quest for Common Ground Between Humans and Robots (New York: Ecco, 2015).
A fraying social contract
Yet the economic conditions surrounding the embrace of Technocracy and Libertarianism are only the easiest to quantify and thus most headline-grabbing. Deeper, more insidious, and ultimately more damaging have been the corrosion of the confidence, faith, and trust on which social support of both democracy and technology rest.
Faith in democratic institutions has been falling, especially in the last decade and a half in all democracies, but especially in the US and developing democracies. In the US, dissatisfaction with democracy has gone from being the opinion of a fringe (less than 25%) to being the majority opinion in the last 3 decades.[^CambridgeDemocracySurvey] While it is less consistently measured, faith in technology, especially leading technology companies, has been similarly declining. In the US, the technology sector has fallen from being considered the most trusted sector in the economy in the early and mid-2010s to amongst the least trusted, based on surveys by organizations like the Public Affairs Council, Morning Consult, Pew Research and Edelman Trust Barometer.[^EdelmanTrustBarometer]
These concerns have spilled out more broadly to a general loss of faith in a range of social institutions. The fraction of Americans expressing high confidence in several leading institutions (including organized religions, federal governments, public schools, media, and law enforcement) has fallen to roughly half its level when such surveys began, around the end of the Golden Age in most cases.[^GallupInstitutionConfidence] Trends in Europe are more moderate and the global picture is uneven, but the general trend towards declining institutional confidence in democratic countries is widely accepted.[^TrustInPublicInstitutions]
Reclaiming our future
Technology and democracy are trapped between two sides of a widening gulf. That war is damaging both sides of the conflict, undermining democracy and slowing technological development. As collateral damage, it is slowing economic growth, undermining confidence in social institutions, and fueling inequality. This conflict is not inevitable; it is the product of the technological directions liberal democracies have collectively chosen to invest in, once fueled by ideologies about the future that are antithetical to democratic ideals. Because political systems depend on technologies to thrive, democracy cannot thrive if we continue down this path.
Another path is possible. Technology and democracy can be each other’s greatest allies. In fact, as we will argue, large-scale “Digital Democracy” is a dream we have only begun to imagine, one that requires unprecedented technology to have any chance of being realized. By reimagining our future, shifting public investments, research agendas, and private development, we can build that future. In the rest of this book, we hope to show you how. And we will begin by telling you the story of a place that has gone farther than any other in realizing that future, a place where democracy and digital technology are not just allies, but deeply mutually entwined.
[^NarrowCorridor]: Daron Acemoglu, and James A Robinson, The Narrow Corridor: States, Societies, and the Fate of Liberty. (New York: Penguin Books, 2020). [^Tocqueville]: Such relationships differ from those established in markets, which are based on bilateral, transactional exchange in a “universal” currency, as they denominate value in units based on local value and trust. [^OutInTheCountry]: Mary Gray, Out in the Country: Youth, Media, and Queer Visibility in Rural America (New York: NYU Press, 2009). See also O’Day, Emily B., and Richard G. Heimberg, “Social Media Use, Social Anxiety, and Loneliness: A Systematic Review,” Computers in Human Behavior Reports 3, no. 100070 (January 2021), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chbr.2021.100070; and see also Hunt Allcott, Luca Braghieri, Sarah Eichmeyer, and Matthew Gentzkow, “The Welfare Effects of Social Media,” American Economic Review 110, no. 3 (March 1, 2020): 629–76. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20190658. [^GhostWork]: Siddharth Suri, and Mary L Gray, Ghost Work: How to Stop Silicon Valley from Building a New Global Underclass, (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2019). David H. Autor, "Why Are There Still So Many Jobs? The History and Future of Workplace Automation", Journal of Economic Perspectives 29, no. 3 (2015): 3-30, https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257%2Fjep.29.3.3&source=post_page. [^PolarizationResearch]: Steven Levitsky, and Daniel Ziblatt. How Democracies Die, (New York: Broadway Books, 2018).; See also Yascha Mounk, The People vs. Democracy: Why Our Freedom Is in Danger and How to Save It, (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2018); Cass Sunstein, #Republic: Divided Democracy in the Age of Social Media, (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2017; Kathleen Jamieson, and Joseph Cappella, Echo Chamber: Rush Limbaugh and the Conservative Media Establishment, (Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 2008). Levi Boxell, Matthew Gentzkow and Jesse M. Shapiro, "Greater Internet Use is Not Associated with Faster Growth in Political Polarization among US Demographic Groups" Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 114, no. 40: 10612-10617. Levi Boxell, Matthew Gentzkow and Jesse M. Shapiro, "Cross-Country Trends in Affective Polarization" Review of Economics and Statistics Forthcoming. [^FinancialInnovation]: Alp Simsek, “The Macroeconomics of Financial Speculation,” Annual Review of Economics 13, no. 1 (May 11, 2021), https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-economics-092120-050543. [^CryptoChallenges]: Ben McKenzie, and Jacob Silverman, Easy Money: Cryptocurrency, Casino Capitalism, and the Golden Age of Fraud, (New York: Abrams, 2023); "Financial Stability Board, “Regulation, Supervision and Oversight of Crypto-Asset Activities and Markets Consultative Document,” 2022, https://www.fsb.org/wp-content/uploads/P111022-3.pdf; Greg Lacurci, “Cryptocurrency Poses a Significant Risk of Tax Evasion,” CNBC, May 31, 2021, https://www.cnbc.com/2021/05/31/cryptocurrency-poses-a-significant-risk-of-tax-evasion.html; Arianna Trozze, Josh Kamps, Eray Akartuna, Florian Hetzel, Bennett Kleinberg, Toby Davies, and Shane Johnson, “Cryptocurrencies and Future Financial Crime,” Crime Science 11, no. 1 (January 5, 2022), https://doi.org/10.1186/s40163-021-00163-8; Baer, Katherine, Ruud De Mooij, Shafik Hebous, and Michael Keen, “Crypto Poses Significant Tax Problems—and They Could Get Worse,” IMF, July 5, 2023, https://www.imf.org/en/Blogs/Articles/2023/07/05/crypto-poses-significant-tax-problems-and-they-could-get-worse; and “Crypto-Assets: Implications for Financial Stability, Monetary Policy, and Payments and Market Infrastructures.” ECB Occasional Paper, no. 223 (May 17, 2019), https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3391055. [^TechnologySocietyImpact]: Tristan Harris, “Ethics for Designers — How Technology Hijacks People’s Minds — from a Magician and Google’s Design Ethicist,” Ethics for Designers, March 4, 2017, https://www.ethicsfordesigners.com/articles/how-technology-hijacks-peoples-minds; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7LqaotiGWjQ; and Daniel Schmachtenberger, “Explorations on the Future of Civilization,” n.d. https://civilizationemerging.com/. [^SurveillanceCapitalism]: Shoshana Zuboff, The Age of Surveillance Capitalism: The Fight for a Human Future at the New Frontier of Power, (New York, NY: PublicAffairs, 2019); Cathy O’neil, Weapons of Math Destruction: How Big Data Increases Inequality and Threatens Democracy, (New York: Crown, 2016); Evangelos Simoudis, The Big Data Opportunity in Our Driverless Future. (Menlo Park, Ca: Corporate Innovators, Llc, 2017); Philippe Aghion, Benjamin Jones, and Charles Jones, “Artificial Intelligence and Economic Growth,” 2017, https://web.stanford.edu/~chadj/AI.pdf; Ford, Martin, Rise of the Robots: Technology and the Threat of a Jobless Future, (New York: Basic Books, 2015); Kai-Fu Lee, AI Superpowers China, Silicon Valley, and the New World Order, (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2018); David Brin, The Transparent Society: Will Technology Force Us to Choose between Privacy and Freedom? (New York: Basic Books, 1999); Safiya Noble, Algorithms of Oppression: How Search Engines Reinforce Racism (New York: New York University Press, 2018); and Virginia Eubanks, Automating Inequality: How High-Tech Tools Profile, Police, and Punish the Poor, (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2018). [^AIChallenges]: Meredith Broussard. Artificial Unintelligence: (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 2018), https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/11022.001.0001; Cathy O’neil, Weapons of Math Destruction: How Big Data Increases Inequality and Threatens Democracy, (New York: Crown, 2016); Ruha Benjamin, “Race after Technology: Abolitionist Tools for the New Jim Code,” Social Forces 98, no. 4 (December 23, 2019), https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/soz162; Victor Margolin, The Politics of the Artificial: Essays on Design and Design Studies, (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2002). [^AIandInequality]: Daron Acemoglu, and Pascual Restrepo, “The Race between Man and Machine: Implications of Technology for Growth, Factor Shares, and Employment,” American Economic Review 108, no. 6 (June 2018): 1488–1542. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20160696; Jonathan Haskel, and Stian Westlake, “Capitalism without Capital: The Rise of the Intangible Economy (an Excerpt),” Journal of Economic Sociology 22, no. 1 (2021): 61–70, https://doi.org/10.17323/1726-3247-2021-1-61-70; Ajay Agrawal, Joshua Gans, Avi Goldfarb, and Catherine Tucker, The Economics of Artificial Intelligence, (Illinois: University of Chicago Press, 2024). [^MarketPower]: Jan De Loecker, Jan Eeckhout, and Gabriel Unger. “The Rise of Market Power and the Macroeconomic Implications,” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 135, no. 2 (January 23, 2020): 561–644, https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjz041; John Barrios, Yael V. Hochberg, and Hanyi Yi. “The Cost of Convenience: Ridehailing and Traffic Fatalities,” SSRN Electronic Journal, 2019, https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3361227; and Tali Kristal, “The Capitalist Machine: Computerization, Workers’ Power, and the Decline in Labor’s Share within U.S. Industries,” American Sociological Review 78, no. 3 (May 29, 2013): 361–89. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122413481351. [^AuthoritarianTech]: Kai-Fu Lee, AI Superpowers China, Silicon Valley, and the New World Order, (Boston Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2018); Bruce Dickson, The Dictator’s Dilemma: The Chinese Communist Party’s Strategy for Survival, (Oxford, England, New York: Oxford University Press, 2016); Nick Couldry, and Ulises Mejias, “Data Colonialism: Rethinking Big Data’s Relation to the Contemporary Subject,” Television & New Media 20, no. 4 (September 2, 2019): 336–49. Steven Feldstein, The Rise of Digital Repression: How Technology Is Reshaping Power, Politics, and Resistance, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2021).
[^DemocracyTechHostility]: European Commission published a study on the impact of open source software (OSS). Strict control of data in the EU has led to a lack of competition and innovation, as well as an increased risk of the market. However, we can see more investments in OSS in response to the steps of innovation in many eastern European countries. If the West fails to maintain and keep its investment in digital tech, it will experience huge losses in the future. For instance, we see the importance of digital OSS in the war between Ukraine and Russia. For more on Europe's digital position, see "Open Technologies for Europe's Digital Decade," OpenForumEurope, n.d, https://openforumeurope.org/. [^PublicOpinionTech]: “Views of Big Tech Worsen; Public Wants More Regulation,” Gallup.com, February 18, 2021, https://news.gallup.com/poll/329666/views-big-tech-worsen-public-wants-regulation.aspx; but see also “Europeans Strongly Support Science and Technology according to New Eurobarometer Survey,” European Commission, September 23, 2021, https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP_21_4645.
[^TechInvestmentDecline]: See Fredrik Erixon, and Björn Weigel, The Innovation Illusion: How so Little Is Created by so Many Working so Hard, (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2017) and Robert Gordon, The Rise and Fall of American Growth: The U.S. Standard of Living since the Civil War, (Princeton; Oxford Princeton University Press, 2017). See also Carl Benedikt, and Michael Osborne, “The Future of Employment: How Susceptible Are Jobs to Computerisation,” The Oxford Martin Programme on Technology and Employment, 2013. https://www.oxfordmartin.ox.ac.uk/downloads/academic/future-of-employment.pdf. Erik Brynjolfsson, and Andrew McAfee, The Second Machine Age: Work, Progress, and Prosperity in a Time of Brilliant Technologies, (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2014). Calestous Juma. Innovation and Its Enemies: Why People Resist New Technologies. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019). Paul De Grauwe, and Anna Asbury. The Limits of the Market: The Pendulum between Government and Market. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019. For data sources, see “Gross Domestic Spending on R&D,” 2022. https://data.oecd.org/rd/gross-domestic-spending-on-r-d.htm.; OECD. “OECD Main Science and Technology Indicators,” OECD, March 2022. https://web-archive.oecd.org/2022-04-05/629283-msti-highlights-march-2022.pdf.; and “R&D Expenditure,” Eurostat, n.d., https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=R%26D_expenditure&oldid=590306. [^PublicInterestTech]: See Julien Mailland and Kevin Driscoll, Minitel: Welcome to the Internet (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2017). For example, even public interest open source code is mostly invested in by private actors, though recently the US Government has made some efforts to support that sector with the launch of code.gov. [^AltmanInterview]: “Transcript: Ezra Klein Interviews Sam Altman,” The New York Times, June 11, 2021, sec. Podcasts. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/06/11/podcasts/transcript-ezra-klein-interviews-sam-altman.html. [^TechStrategyPRC]: Emily Crawford, “Made in China 2025: The Industrial Plan That China Doesn’t Want Anyone Talking About,” Frontline PBS, May 7, 2019. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/made-in-china-2025-the-industrial-plan-that-china-doesnt-want-anyone-talking-about/; Ramnath Reghunadhan, “Innovation in China: Challenging the Global Science and Technology System,” Asian Affairs 50, no. 4 (August 8, 2019): 656–57. https://doi.org/10.1080/03068374.2019.1663076. United Arab Emirates National Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (2018) available at https://ai.gov.ae/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/UAE-National-Strategy-for-Artificial-Intelligence-2031.pdf. [^DigitalDisconnect]: See Robert Mcchesney, Digital Disconnect: How Capitalism Is Turning the Internet against Democracy, (New York; London: The New Press, 2013). See also Matthew Hindman, The Internet Trap: How the Digital Economy Builds Monopolies and Undermines Democracy, (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2018); Adam Segal, The Hacked World Order: How Nations Fight, Trade, Maneuver, and Manipulate in the Digital Age, (New York: Publicaffairs, September, 2017); Richard Stengel, Information Wars: How We Lost the Global Battle against Disinformation and What We Can Do about It, (St. Louis: Grove Press Atlantic, 2020); and Tim Wu, The Attention Merchants: The Epic Scramble to Get inside Our Heads, (New York: Vintage Books, 2017). [^TechInvestmentPRC]: See Rogier Creemers, Hunter Dorwart, Kevin Neville, Kendra Schaefer, Johanna Costigan, and Graham Webster, “Translation: 14th Five-Year Plan for National Informatization – Dec. 2021.” DigiChina, January 24, 2022, https://digichina.stanford.edu/work/translation-14th-five-year-plan-for-national-informatization-dec-2021/. [^SingleRating]: See, for, instance, John, Alun, Samuel Shen, and Tom Wilson. “China’s Top Regulators Ban Crypto Trading and Mining, Sending Bitcoin Tumbling.” Reuters, September 24, 2021, https://www.reuters.com/world/china/china-central-bank-vows-crackdown-cryptocurrency-trading-2021-09-24/. See also Bernhard Bartsch, Martin Gottske, and Christian Eisenberg, “China’s Social Credit System,” n.d., https://www.bertelsmann-stiftung.de/fileadmin/files/aam/Asia-Book_A_03_China_Social_Credit_System.pdf. [^ScienceFiction]: Ursula K. LeGuin, The Dispossessed: An Ambiguous Utopia (New York: Harper & Row, 1974). Octavia E. Butler, Wild Seed (New York: Doubleday, 1980). Marge Piercy, Woman on the Edge of Time (New York: Knopf, 1976). Karl Schroeder, "Degrees of Freedom" in Ed Finn and Kathryn Cramer eds. Hieroglyph: Stories & Visions for a Better Future (New York: William Morrow, 2014). Karl Schroeder, Stealing Worlds (New York: Tor Books, 2019) Annalee Newitz, The Future of Another Timeline (New York: Tor Books, 2019). Cory Doctorow, Walkaway (New York: Tor Books, 2017). Malka Older, Infomocracy (New York: Tor Books, 2016). Naomi Alderman, The Power, (New York:Viking, 2017) Cixin Liu, The Three-Body Problem (New York: Tor Books, 2014) Paolo Bacigalupi, The Windup Girl (New York: Start Publishing LLC, 2009). Neal Stephenson, The Diamond Age (New York: Spectra, 2003). William Gibson, The Peripheral (New York: Berkley, 2019). [^STS]: Jacques Ellul, The Technological Society (New York: Vintage Books, 1964). Paul Hoch, Donald MacKenzie, and Judy Wajcman, “The Social Shaping of Technology,” Technology and Culture 28, no. 1 (January 1987): 132 https://doi.org/10.2307/3105489. Andrew Pickering, “The Cybernetic Brain: Sketches of Another Future,” Kybernetes 40, no. 1/2 (March 15, 2011) https://doi.org/10.1108/k.2011.06740aae.001. Deborah Douglas, Wiebe E. Bijker, Thomas P. Hughes, and Trevor Pinch, The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 2012), available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt5vjrsq. Charles C. Mann, 1491: New Revelation of the Americas Before Columbus (New York: Knopf, 2005). [^PowerProgress]: Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson, Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle over Technology and Prosperity (New York: PublicAffairs, 2023). [^GartnerReport]: According to a report by the research and advisory company, Gartner, worldwide government spending on AI is expected to reach 37 billion in 2021, a 22.4% increase from the previous year. - China leads the world in AI investment: Chinese companies invested 25 billion in AI in 2017, compared to 9.7 billion in the US. In 2021, the US Senate passed a 250 billion bill that includes $52 billion for semiconductor research and development, which is expected to boost the country's AI capabilities. Additionally, in the same year, the European Union announced an 8.3 billion investment in artificial intelligence, cybersecurity, and supercomputers as part of its Digital Decade plan. In 2021, the Bank of Japan started experimenting with central bank digital currency (CBDC) and China's central bank launched a digital yuan trial program in several cities. [^NavigatingtheGeopoliticsofInnovation]: Omoaholo Omoakhalen, “Navigating the Geopolitics of Innovation: Policy and Strategy Imperatives for the 21st Century Africa,” Remake Africa Consulting, December 2023, https://remakeafrica.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/Navigating_the_Geopolitics_of_Innovation.pdf. [^WhiteHouse2024Budget]: The White House. “Fact Sheet: President Biden’s 2024 Budget Invests in American Science, Technology, and Innovation to Achieve Our Nation’s Greatest Aspirations.” OSTP, March 13, 2023. https://www.whitehouse.gov/ostp/news-updates/2023/03/13/fy24-budget-fact-sheet-rd-innovation/. [^RobertAtkinson]: Robert Atkinson, “A U.S. Grand Strategy for the Global Digital Economy,” Information Technology and Innovation Foundation, 2021, as cited in Omoaholo Omoakhalen, “Navigating the Geopolitics of Innovation: Policy and Strategy Imperatives for the 21st Century Africa,” Remake Africa Consulting, https://remakeafrica.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/Navigating_the_Geopolitics_of_Innovation.pdf. [^AcemogluRestrepoStudy]: Daron Acemoglu and Pascual Restrepo, “Automation and New Tasks: How Technology Displaces and Reinstates Labor.” Journal of Economic Perspectives 33, no. 2 (May 2019): 3–30. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.33.2.3. Note that the precise Golden Age-Digital Stagnation cutoff differs across these studies, but it is always somewhere during the 1970s or 1980s. [^PosnerWeylBook]: Eric Posner, Glen Weyl, and Vitalik Buterin, Radical Markets: Uprooting Capitalism and Democracy for a Just Society, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2019). [^PhilipponBook]: Thomas Philippon, The Great Reversal: How America Gave up on Free Markets, (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press Of Harvard University Press, 2019); Jonathan Tepper, The Myth of Capitalism: Monopolies and the Death of Competition, New York: Harper Business, 2018). [^CambridgeDemocracySurvey]: Fred Lewsey, “Global Dissatisfaction with Democracy at a Record High,” University of Cambridge, January 29, 2020, https://www.cam.ac.uk/stories/dissatisfactiondemocracy. [^EdelmanTrustBarometer]: According to the 2021 Edelman Trust Barometer, only 57% of global respondents trust technology as a reliable source of information. This represents a decline of 4 points from the previous year's survey. A 2020 survey by Pew Research Center found that 72% of Americans believe that social media companies have too much power and influence over the news that people see. Additionally, 51% of respondents said they were very or somewhat concerned about the role of technology in political polarization. A 2019 survey by the Center for the Governance of AI at the University of Oxford found that only 33% of Americans believe that tech companies are generally trustworthy. In a 2020 survey of 9,000 people in nine countries, conducted by Ipsos MORI, only 30% of respondents said that they trust social media companies to behave responsibly with their data. These data points suggest that there is a growing sense of skepticism and concern about the role of technology in society, including its impact on democracy. See Richard Wike, Laura Silver, Janell Fetterolf, Christine Huang, Sarah Austin, Laura Clancy, and Sneha Gubbala. “Social Media Seen as Mostly Good for Democracy across Many Nations, but U.S. Is a Major Outlier,” Pew Research Center, December 6, 2022, https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2022/12/06/social-media-seen-as-mostly-good-for-democracy-across-many-nations-but-u-s-is-a-major-outlier/. Pew Research shows ordinary citizens see social media as both a constructive and destructive component of political life, and overall most believe it has actually had a positive impact on democracy. Across the countries polled, a median of 57% say social media has been more of a good thing for their democracy, with 35% saying it has been a bad thing. There are substantial cross-national differences on this question, however, and the United States is a clear outlier: Just 34% of U.S. adults think social media has been good for democracy, while 64% say it has had a bad impact. In fact, the U.S. is an outlier on a number of measures, with larger shares of Americans seeing social media as divisive. See OAIC, “Australian Community Attitudes to Privacy Survey 2020 Prepared for the Office of the Australian Information Commissioner by Lonergan Research,” 2020, https://www.oaic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0015/2373/australian-community-attitudes-to-privacy-survey-2020.pdf. Many consumer respondents to a recent Australian survey (58%) admitted they do not understand what firms do with the data they collect, and 49% feel unable to protect their data due to a lack of knowledge or time, as well as the complexity of the processes involved (OAIC, 2020). “Twitter, Facebook, YouTube, and Instagram are critical in disseminating the rapid and far-reaching spread of information,” a systematic review by WHO explains. See World Health Organization, “Infodemics and Misinformation Negatively Affect People’s Health Behaviours,” September 1, 2022. https://www.who.int/europe/news/item/01-09-2022-infodemics-and-misinformation-negatively-affect-people-s-health-behaviours--new-who-review-finds. The repercussions of misinformation on social media include such negative effects as “an increase in erroneous interpretation of scientific knowledge, opinion polarization, escalating fear and panic or decreased access to health care”. See Janna Anderson, and Lee Rainie, “Concerns about Democracy in the Digital Age,” Pew Research Center, February 21, 2020. https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2020/02/21/concerns-about-democracy-in-the-digital-age/. [^GallupInstitutionConfidence]: Gallup, “Confidence in Institutions,” n.d., https://news.gallup.com/poll/1597/confidence-institutions.aspx. [^TrustInPublicInstitutions]: United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, “Trust in Public Institutions: Trends and Implications for Economic Security,” n.d., https://social.desa.un.org/publications/trust-in-public-institutions-trends-and-implications-for-economic-security. See also Marta Kolczynska, Paul-Christian Bürkner, Lauren Kennedy, and Aki Vehtari, “Modeling Public Opinion over Time and Space: Trust in State Institutions in Europe, 1989-2019,” SocArXiv, August 11, 2020. https://doi.org/10.31235/osf.io/3v5g7. [^RussianDigitalControl]: Gleb Stolyarov, and Gabrielle Tétrault-Farber, “‘Face Control’: Russian Police Go Digital against Protesters,” Reuters, February 11, 2021, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-politics-navalny-tech-idUSKBN2AB1U2. See also Mark Krutov, Maria Chernova, and Robert Coalson, “Russia Unveils a New Tactic to Deter Dissent: CCTV and a ‘Knock on the Door,’ Days Later,” Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, April 28, 2021, https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-dissent-cctv-detentions-days-later-strategy/31227889.html. [^RussianDraftEvaders]: Anastasiia Kruope, “Russia Uses Facial Recognition to Hunt down Draft Evaders,” Human Rights Watch, October 26, 2022, https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/10/26/russia-uses-facial-recognition-hunt-down-draft-evaders.